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When the roles of variables are confused, hypotheses point the wrong way and the analysis tests a relationship that the study did not intend to test. This article defines independent, dependent and control variables, illustrating each with a single hypothetical experiment, and compares experimental, quasi-experimental and correlational designs by the causal claims that each supports. Research questions from completed doctoral studies are used to demonstrate three checks for identifying a variable's role.

The article also distinguishes moderating, mediating and confounding variables, introduces latent variables, and identifies common errors in specifying variables. It is suited to research-design and quantitative methods courses at master's and doctoral level. The article is the formal edition of a piece first published by Grad Coach and is released under CC BY 4.0.

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